B.A HISTORY VI SEM CONTEMPORARY WORLD MODULE 2

The third world – ppt

Non-alignment - ppt

The National Liberation in South Africa

The formation of the United Democratic Front (UDF) in August 1983 introduced a new challenge to white minority rule after the banning of the South African black opposition - the African National Congress (ANC) and the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) - in 1960 and the repression of the African trade unions. The revolutionary strategies of the banned ANC and the PAC, aiming at the radical transformation of South African society, and popular struggles in the form of strikes and community-based protest, were a combined assault on the system of domination and exploitation in South Africa. It was the UDF that provided a national "political form" to popular struggles and filled the institutional vacuum created by the banning and the destruction of the Black Consciousness Movement (BCM). Disbanded in 1991, the period 1983-87 represents a period of heightened activity at local, regional and national levels for the UDF and is thus the focus period of this study.

While a large number of journal articles, book chapters and books were published on the UDF and township politics during the 1980s, most studies have focused on the formation, structure, strategies and policies, leadership and membership, and activities of the UDF. This publication advances the approach by relating these to theories of revolutionary strategy in South Africa. In this study, Houston examines the relation between revolutionary theory and praxis, and the formation of the UDF, its aims, policies and practices.

Further, the UDF was an alliance of a broad range of autonomous organisations of differing class origins and with differing political and ideological agendas that came together having a common cause - opposition to the apartheid system of domination and exploitation. The study therefore also examines the emergence and proliferation of community organisations, central to the strategies of mass mobilisation and organisation, as well as the spread of revolutionary consciousness throughout black civil society. It is argued that, as a result of the shift towards the UDF, some community organisations experienced significant changes in their structures, leadership and membership, and in their strategies and activities. The analysis thus reveals the type of democratic organisations that emerged during the course of the struggle: their structures, membership and practices.

Just as in Africa, the borders in the Middle East are arbitrarily drawn. They are the product of the manipulations of imperialist powers, and only to a lesser extent products of what the peoples themselves have wanted.

During the era of decolonization, there was a strong, secular pan-Arab movement that wanted to create a unified Arab world. This movement was influenced by the nationalist and socialist ideas that had strong popular support at the time.

King Abdallah I of Jordan envisaged a kingdom that would consist of Jordan, Palestine and Syria. Egypt and Syria briefly established a union called the United Arab Republic. Gaddafi wanted to unite Libya, Syria and Egypt in a federation of Arab republics.

In 1958, a quickly dissolved confederation was established between Jordan and Iraq, called the Arab Federation. All these efforts were transient. What remains is the Arab League, which is, after all, not a state federation and not an alliance. And then of course we have the demand for a Kurdish state, or something similar consisting of one or more Kurdish mini-states.

Still, the most divisive product of the First World War was the establishment of the state of Israel on Palestinian soil. During the First World War, Britain’s Foreign Minister Arthur Balfour issued what became known as the Balfour Declaration, which «… view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people.»

Arab League

Arab League, also called League of Arab States (LAS), Arabic Al-Jāmiʿah al-ʿArabiyyah or Al-Jāmiʿah al-Duwal al-ʿArabiyyah, regional organization of Arab states in the Middle East and parts of Africa, formed in Cairo on March 22, 1945, as an outgrowth of Pan-Arabism. The founding member states were Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Transjordan (now Jordan), Saudi Arabia, and Yemen. Other members are Libya (1953); Sudan (1956); Tunisia and Morocco (1958); Kuwait (1961); Algeria (1962); Bahrain, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates (1971); Mauritania (1973); Somalia (1974); the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO; 1976); Djibouti (1977); and Comoros (1993). (When Yemen was a divided country, from 1967 to 1990, the two regimes were separately represented.) Each member has one vote on the League Council, decisions being binding only on those states that have voted for them.

The aims of the league in 1945 were to strengthen and coordinate the political, cultural, economic, and social programs of its members and to mediate disputes among them or between them and third parties. The signing on April 13, 1950, of an agreement on joint defense and economic cooperation also committed the signatories to coordination of military defense measures.

In its early years the Arab League concentrated mainly on economic, cultural, and social programs. In 1959 it held the first Arab petroleum congress and in 1964 established the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO). Also in 1964, despite objections by Jordan, the league granted the PLO observer status as the representative of all Palestinians. This was upgraded to full membership in 1976.

Under the leadership of Mahmoud Riad, the third secretary-general (1972–79), political activity increased. The league, however, was weakened by internal dissension on political issues, especially those concerning Israel and the Palestinians. After Egypt signed a peace treaty with Israel on March 26, 1979, the other members of the Arab League voted to suspend Egypt’s membership and to transfer the league’s headquarters from Cairo to Tunis. Egypt was reinstated as a member of the Arab League in 1989, and the league’s headquarters returned to Cairo in 1990.

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and the later involvement, at the request of Saudi Arabia, of Western countries—mainly the United States—in ridding Kuwait of Iraqi presence caused a deep rift in the league. Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria, Morocco, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Lebanon, Djibouti, and Somalia endorsed the presence of foreign troops in Saudi Arabia, and all but the last three had some degree (however slight) of military involvement in the war.

The Arab League was forced to adapt to sudden changes in the Arab world when popular protests known as the Arab Spring broke out in several countries in the Middle East and North Africa in late 2010 and early 2011. In February 2011 the Arab League suspended Libya’s participation in the league amid its regime’s violent response to the Libya Revolt, and in March it supported the imposition of a no-fly zone to protect opponents of Libyan leader Muammar al-Qaddafi from air attacks by loyalist forces. Libya’s participation in the Arab League was reinstated in August under the representation of the Transitional National Council (TNC) after Qaddafi was overthrown. Meanwhile, as the 2011 uprising in Syria grew increasingly violent, the Arab League reached an agreement with the Syrian government in November to end its bloody 10-month campaign against peaceful protesters in Syria. Less than two weeks later, amid reports that the Syrian forces had continued to kill protesters in spite of the agreement, the Arab League voted to suspend Syria’s participation.

Member Countries - SAARC, ASEAN, OPEC

Member Countries of South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was formed in 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand to promote political and economic cooperation and regional stability. The member countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) are Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Laos and Myanmar. The ASEAN Community is comprised of three pillars, the Political-Security Community, Economic Community and Socio-Cultural Community. Every year following the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, ASEAN holds its Post-Ministerial Conference (PMC) to which the Secretary of State is invited. In 1994, ASEAN took the lead in establishing the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), which now has 27 members.

1.1 Objectives:

The ASEAN nations came together with three main objectives in mind:

§  To promote the economic, social and cultural development of the region through cooperative programmers

§  To safeguard the political and economic stability of the region against big power rivalry; and

§  To serve as a forum for the resolution of intra-regional differences.

1.2 Activities:

ASEAN and its Member States reaffirm and adhere to the fundamental principles contained in the declarations, agreements, conventions, concords, treaties and other instruments of ASEAN.ASEAN and its Member States shall act in accordance with the following Principles:

§  Respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity and national identity of all ASEAN Member States;

§  Shared commitment and collective responsibility in enhancing regional peace, security and prosperity;

§  Renunciation of aggression and of the threat or use of force or other actions in any manner inconsistent with international law;

§  Reliance on peaceful settlement of disputes;

§  Non-interference in the internal affairs of ASEAN Member States;

§  Respect for the right of every Member State to lead its national existence free from external interference, subversion and coercion;

§  Enhanced consultations on matters seriously affecting the common interest of ASEAN

§  Respect for fundamental freedoms, the promotion and protection of human rights, and the promotion of social justice;

§  Upholding the United Nations Charter and international law, including international humanitarian law, subscribed to by ASEAN Member States;

§  Abstention from participation in any policy or activity, including the use of its territory, pursued by any ASEAN Member State or non-ASEAN State or any non-State actor, which threatens the sovereignty, territorial integrity or political and economic stability of ASEAN Member States;

§  Respect for the different cultures, languages and religions of the peoples of ASEAN, while emphasizing their common values in the spirit of unity in diversity.

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was established on September 14, 1960, it consisted of just five developing countries. The founding members of the Organization of the Oil Exporting Countries are Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela. OPEC’s six other members are Qatar (which joined in 1961), Indonesia (joined in 1962), Libya (joined in 1962), the United Arab Emirates (which took over the membership of Abu Dhabi in 1974), Algeria (joined in 1969) and Nigeria (joined in 1971).

7.1 Objectives:

OPEC’s objectives are spelled out in the OPEC Statute, which dates from the earliest days of the organization: “OPEC’s principal aims are the coordination and unification of the petroleum policies of Member Countries and the determination of the best means for safeguarding their interest, individually and collectively. The Organization shall devise ways and means of ensuring the stabilization of prices in international oil markets,

7.2 Activities:

These documents were adopted in the 1960s, when the world oil industry, outside the former centrally planned economies, was dominated by the “The Seven Sisters” multinational oil companies. In such an environment, oil prices were at extremely low levels, with minimal returns for those countries within whose borders the crude reserves lay.

OPEC asserted its role in the 1970s, supporting its member countries as they took control of their domestic oil industries and acquired a major say in the pricing of oil on world markets. While the situation has moved on since then, with a broadening of the power base in a more integrated and consensual global industry, OPEC is nevertheless envisaged today as a major player in the world oil market.

There is one other important early document of relevance to OPEC’s role — the “Solemn Declaration” adopted by a conference of OPEC sovereigns and heads of state in Algiers in 1975. This declaration carried a proposal for a “New International Economic Order” aimed at promoting a more equitable global economic system, with particular emphasis on alleviating poverty and other injustices affecting developing countries by encouraging greater interdependence among nations from the north and south.

The proposal for a new international economic order led to the establishment of the OPEC Fund for International Development, which is a multilateral development finance institution seeking to promote cooperation between OPEC members and other developing countries. Over the years, the OPEC Fund has distributed loans and grants to 104 countries located in Africa, Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and Europe. Including grants and contributions to other institutions, the Fund’s total approved commitments, as of the end of September 1999, stood at $5.4 billion (U.S.), with disbursements reaching $3.7 billion.

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

 

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) comprises Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. SAARC is a manifestation of the determination of the peoples of South Asia to work together towards finding solutions to their common problems in a spirit of friendship, trust and understanding and to create an order based on mutual respect, equity and shared benefits. The main goal of the Association is to accelerate the process of economic and social development in member states, through joint action in the agreed areas of cooperation. The idea of regional cooperation in South Asia was first mooted in November 1980. After consultations, the Foreign Secretaries of the seven countries met for the first time in Colombo, in April 1981. This was followed, a few months later, by the meeting of the Committee of the Whole, which identified five broad areas for regional cooperation. The Foreign Ministers, at their first meeting in New Delhi, in August 1983, formally launched the Integrated Programme of Action (IPA) through the adoption of the Declaration on South Asian Regional Cooperation (SARC). At the First Summit held in Dhaka on 7-8 December 1985, the Charter establishing the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was adopted.

8.1 Objectives:

The objectives are as follows:

§  To promote the welfare of the peoples of South Asia and to improve their quality of life;

§  To accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region and to provide all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and to realize their full potentials;

§  To promote and strengthen collective self-reliance among the countries of South Asia;

§  To contribute to mutual trust, understanding and appreciation of one another’s problems;

§  To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields;

§  To strengthen cooperation with other developing countries;

§  To strengthen cooperation among themselves in international forums on matters of common interests; and

§  To cooperate with international and regional organizations with similar aims and purposes

§  Cooperation within the framework of the Association is based on respect for the principles of sovereign equality, territorial integrity, political independence, non-interference in the internal affairs of other states and mutual benefit.

§  Such cooperation is to complement and not to substitute bilateral or multilateral cooperation.

§  Such cooperation should be consistent with bilateral and multilateral obligations of the member states.

§  Decisions at all levels in SAARC are taken on the basis of unanimity.

§  Bilateral and contentious issues are excluded from its deliberations.

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 27 member states that are located primarily in Europe.^[12] Its members have a combined area of 4,233,255.3 km² (1,634,469.0 sq mi) and an estimated total population of about 447 million. The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states in those matters, and only those matters, where members have agreed to act as one. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market,^[13] enact legislation in justice and home affairs and maintain common policies on trade,^[14] agriculture,^[15] fisheries and regional development.^[16] For travel within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished.^[17] A monetary union was established in 1999, coming into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency.

§  The EU and European citizenship were established when the Maastricht Treaty came into force in 1993.^[18] The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC), established, respectively, by the 1951 Treaty of Paris and 1957 Treaty of Rome. The original members of what came to be known as the European Communities were the Inner Six: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. The Communities and their successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to their remit. The latest major amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU, the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009.

§  In January 2020, the United Kingdom became the first member state ever to leave the EU. Following a 2016 referendum, the UK signified its intention to leave and negotiated a withdrawal agreement. The UK is in a transitional phase until at least 31 December 2020, during which it remains subject to EU law and part of the EU single market and customs union. Before this, only three territories of member states had left the EU or its forerunners, these being French Algeria (in 1962, upon independence), Greenland (in 1985, following a referendum) and Saint Barthélemy (in 2012).

§  Containing in 2020 some 5.8% of the world population,^{[note 1]} the EU in 2017 (including the United Kingdom) had generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of around 20 trillion US dollars, constituting approximately 25% of global nominal GDP.^[20] Additionally, all EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.^[21] Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Due to its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower.^[22]

The Afghan Civil War was fought from 14 November 1928 to 13 October 1929. Rebelling, and subsequently governing Saqqawist forces under Habibullāh Kalakāni fought against various opposing tribes and rival monarchs in the Kingdom of Afghanistan, among whom Mohammed Nādir Khān eventually achieved a preponderant role. Despite early successes, such as the capture of Kabul and defeat of Amanullah Khan on 17 January 1929 or the capture of Kandahar on 3 June,^[a] the Saqqawists were eventually deposed by anti-Saqqawist forces led by Nadir on 13 October 1929, leading to Nadir's ascension as King of Afghanistan, who ruled until his assassination on 3 November 1933.

The war began when the Shinwari tribe revolted in Jalalabad and drew a manifesto of 10 grievances, 5 of which related to Amanullah's meddling with the status of women. Although this revolt was quelled by a force led by Ali Ahmad Khan, a concurrent Saqqawist uprising in the north managed to capture the besieged city of Jabal al-Siraj, before attacking Kabul on 14 December 1928. Although the first Saqqawist assault on Kabul was repulsed, the second Saqqawist assault succeeded at capturing Kabul on 17 January 1929. The government at that time was focused on social reforms, such as the expansion of women's rights and the adoption of a military draft, which had earlier led to the unsuccessful Alizai rebellion and Khost rebellion. Kalakani denounced his opponents as kuffar,^[13] while his forces committed acts of rape^[14] and looting.^[15]

After capturing Kabul, the Saqqawists defeated a rival government in Jalalabad led by Ali Ahmad Khan on 9 February. Despite a setback in the Battle of Shaykhabad in early March, the Saqqawists managed to extend their control to Kandahar in June after a short siege. However, they were unable to defeat Nadir Khan in the Logar valley, who had entered the area together with Amanullah in March, although the latter left the country on 23 May. After a months-long stalemate, Nadir Khan eventually managed to force the Saqqawists to retreat into Kabul in October 1929, and subsequently into the Arg. The capture of the Arg on 13 October 1929 marked the end of the civil war, although Saqqawist activity continued until 1931. The civil war was fought concurrently with a Soviet invasion of northern Afghanistan [ru] to fight the Basmachi movement.

During the anti-Saqqawist capture of Kabul, Nadir's forces sacked the city against his orders. After the civil war, Nadir did not cede control of the Afghan throne back to Amanullah, and this led to several rebellions, including the Shinwari rebellion, the Kuhistan rebellion, the Ghilzai rebellion, and Mazrak's revolt. During World War II, Amanullah would unsuccessfully try to regain the throne with Axis help.